MicroProse JUMP JET Fighter Simulation MicroProse Bulletin Board (410) 785-1841 07/14/93 Additional Information Supplement Harrier Weapons and Supplies Cannons Most Effective against: Aircraft in flight Aircraft on ground (not in hangar) Airfield tower, radio/radar Non- military buildings Stockpiles of military equipment Large missile launchers "Soft targets" trucks etc. GAU-12/U Equalizer The General Electric "Equalizer" has a five-barrel Gatling type cannon with a pneumatic drive system in an under fuselage pod. Firing rate 4,200 rounds per minute with a capacity of 300 rounds. Weight: 559 kg Drag Factor: 0.14 Aden 25 mm Developed by Royal Ordnance the 25mm Aden has a slow rate of fire but can be fitted in two places under the fuselage. It is pneumatically cocked, gas operated, revolver cannon with a rate of fire of 1750 rounds per minute. The Aden has a low recoil factor and reaches maximum rate of fire very quickly. Weight: 430 kg Drag Factor: 0.12 25 mm ADEN podded gun Single-barrelled ADEN gun firing 31 rounds per second with a capacity of 330 rounds. Weight: 798 kg Drag Factor: 0.12 GPU-5A 30 mm Gun Pod Four-barrelled Gatling type gun with a rate of fire of 50 rounds per second and ammunition capacity of 353 rounds. Weight: 862 kg Drag Factor: 0.12 Air-to-Air Guided Missiles Most effective against: Aircraft in the air AIM-9S Sidewinder The AIM-9S is the best dogfighting missile currently available. It has the capability to hang on to twisting, turning targets. Combat pilots like to use it when catching enemy fighters from the rear, from above or nose on. The Sidewinder"s main weakness is its short range. Heat-Seeking Air-to-Air Missile Impact Velocity: Mach 3.5 (2600 mph) Range: 5 miles Weight: 87 Kg Speed: Mach 2" Attack Altitude: 500 ft " Seeker: All aspect infra-red Attack Technique: Air-to- air "fire-and-forget". Drag Factor: 0.01 Harrier Air and Ground Attacks Air-to-Ground Missiles "Fire-and-Forget" With "fire-and-forget" missiles such as the Maverick it"s just a matter of getting "lock-on" (indicating a high-accuracy firing solution) and then releasing them. These missiles are extremely effective in destroying groundbased targets so it"s wise to wait for your best possible shot. After launch, the missile assumes your course and speed then drops for about 300 feet before its motor fully ignites and accelerates the missile. The missile"s maximum range depends on the amount of fuel it has and its initial launch speed; the faster you are flying, the greater the missile"s range. As a general rule do not launch a missile below 500 feet or in a power dive because it may hit the ground before you can fly away. Laser Guided Bombs These are motorless missiles that glide from your plane to a target "painted" by a laser controlled by a ground installation. Glide bombs travel as fast as the launching aircraft. If you release from low altitude, they hit the target about the same time as your plane is passing over it and the explosion will damage or destroy your plane. To counter this problem Harrier pilots will employ the "toss bombing" method. Toss Bombing Approach level at about 500 feet, flying at full speed. When you are 3 to 6 km from the target pitch up into a climb (30¡ to 40¡) and watch for "lock-on" on your HUD. When this occurs, launch the bomb and turn away. Level Bombing You may also "level bomb" with LGBs. Generally, you will need to attack from at least 2000 feet. From that height you can "lock" onto the target from 4 km. Attack at once then turn away but remember to keep your underside facing the target. You can, if you wish, fly over the target but climb to 3000 feet to avoid the explosion. Remember that you will then be a sitting duck for enemy radar and SAMs. Retarded Bombs These are unguided bombs fitted with special fins that slow them down very quickly. This allows the bombs to fall behind your aircraft making lower altitude drops safer. Level Bombing The standard technique for retarded bombing is to fly straight over the target at low altitude and then release the bomb on the cue from your HUD. If you maintain speed in your bombing run, you can safely release the ordnance from just above 500 feet, and safely avoid the 3000 feet burst area. Retarded bombs are less accurate than free-fall or laser-guided bombs and will probably miss the target from high altitude. It"s also extremely difficult to hit precise targets with them although cluster bomb units (BL755 and Rockeye) give good area coverage to compensate for drop inaccuracies. Free-Fall Bombs These are conventional bombs that arc down at high speed toward the target. Level Bombing This is the simplest method of dropping free-fall bombs. The same procedure as retarded bombing applies, except that the safe bombing altitude is 3000 feet, instead of 500 feet, making you vulnerable to enemy defenses. Dive Bombing This is a more accurate technique for dropping free-fall bombs but requires considerable practice and skill. To make a dive bombing attack, start by flying low toward the target. Select your ordnance. When you are 6 km from the target zoom up into a 55¡ climb to get to 8000 feet. Your objective is to get to the correct height about 2 km horizontal distance from the target. Now dive for the target. Level out, tap the air brakes and at just under 1 km from the target, push down in a steep (80¡) dive. Now, line up the target with your HUD. Keep an eye on your altitude, if you are below 3000 feet before bomb drop, pull out and try again. Release the bomb and, if there is time, release another bomb immediately then pull up sharp and roll away in a 90¡ turn. Close the airbrakes. Climbing to a dive bombing position usually broadcasts your presence to the enemy so it"s wise, once you turn away from the target, to check for missile warnings. Reconnaissance If you are on a reconnaissance mission you should have a camera pod loaded on your Harrier. You can select the Recon pod like any other ordnance and your HUD information will change to the appropriate type. To take photographs fly the plane so that the target passes through the centre of the target box. When this happens hit the Fire Ordnance selector. You will see a message to confirm if you have taken a photograph successfully. Camera runs are similar to strafing runs but in this case you can fly level because the camera is slanted slightly down. Remember that flying with air brakes extended slows your speed making it much easier to line up shots. Air-to-Air Combat The Harrier has the ability to change the position of its thrust nozzles to give it greater agility in air-to-air combat. Vectoring In Forward Flight (VIFFing) allows the aircraft to perform unique aerial manoeuvres. By using VIFF the Harrier can decelerate very quickly forcing enemy aircraft to fly in front of it; useful if you are trying to out-turn someone on your tail. The Harrier is also a supreme dogfighting aircraft by virtue of its agility, high thrust-to-weight ratio, small mass, non-smoke engine, cannon, Sidewinder capability and high angle-of-attack flight control system. It also has excellent self-defence capability with its radar warning system; chaff/flare dispensers and jamming systems. Surprise! In air-to-air combat, surprise is one of your most important weapons. The best method to ambush an enemy plane is to creep up behind it. Fighter pilots, in general, prefer to attack from above to get an "energy advantage" in any dogfight. If you are "bounced" by the enemy, you must look for incoming missiles and take the appropriate defensive action. The basic rule is that missiles travel faster than planes and must be countered first. Only after that can you think about an escape or a dogfight. Exchanging Missiles An air-to-air battle usually begins with a head-to-head face-off. Be prepared to set ECM or chaff the incoming. Remember that if you can get off a second missile then so can your opponent; especially if he carries IR missiles (expect them on MiG-29s and Su-27s). Radar-Homing AAMs Most radar-guided weapons are semi-active homers: the launching aircraft must continue to "paint" you with its radar and the missile homes on the "paint". Avoid radar-homing AAMs in the same manner as SAMs (see below) Infra Red (IR) Homing AAMs All IR homing AAMs are "fire-and-forget" weapons. To counter them, use the same tactics as against IR SAMs (see below). Many IR homers are usually fired at short range during a dogfight which means you"ll have to be fast with the IR defences as soon as you get a launch warning, then dodge away from the missile"s 45¡ field- of-view. If you delay too long drop a flare and dodge, then pray! Dogfights Get On His Tail! The basic rule in dogfighting is to get behind your opponent. On all fighter aircraft guns and missile systems face forwards and if you"re on his tail you can shoot and he can"t. If you can"t get on his tail try to position his plane in front of you to give you the maximum number of firing opportunities. Go Faster! Climb Higher! Maintaining higher speed or altitude is valuable in a dogfight. An aircraft that is slower and lower can only hope to dodge attacks; but an aircraft that is faster or higher has the opportunity to attack or retreat. Being faster or higher than the enemy is termed the "energy advantage". Escape Manoeuvres The Harrier has its own special methods of shaking off a pursuing plane (see below) but in classic dogfighting terms there are five basic manoeuvres to remove an enemy plane from your tail. Turning Inside The easiest solution is to turn towards him (in the enemy plane"s direction). In the event of you turning faster than him, you"ll eventually circle around and get on his tail. It"s quite common to see rookie pilots engaged in a "turn match", circling around each other. However, if the enemy is turning faster than you, he"ll get behind you again. If you don"t want to get toasted you must try something else immediately! Scissors This is more complex but begins in the same way as Turning Inside. Begin to turn towards your opponent but, when he begins to turn with you, roll over to turn in the opposite direction. The scissors are now open! When the enemy realizes you"ve turned away he should turn back towards you. You then simply roll back towards him again closing the scissors. If your turns were quicker and tighter than his and/or you are the slower plane, he will eventually pass in front of you. This lets you in on his tail. Rookie pilots can often be lured into a scissors even if they have a plane that turns faster. Experienced enemy pilots may avoid this tactic by anticipating your next turn and blasting you (if they"re slower) or by pulling up and over in a Yo-Yo (if they"re faster). Immelmann Turn This is useful if you want to reverse direction quickly. Carry out a half loop upwards to reverse direction, then a half roll to right your aircraft. If an enemy is on your tail, an Immelmann will bring you nose-to-nose with him. Be careful when executing an Immelmann; it will give you an altitude gain but at the expense of speed. Split-S Turn Almost the opposite to the Immelmann, you begin this manoeuvre by rolling inverted, then pull the stick back to half-loop downward. Many pilots choose to roll the plane while looping. The Split-S causes you to lose altitude so it"s often wise to reduce throttle and use air brakes to minimalize altitude loss. Be careful using the Split-S into, or away from, the enemy and always keep an eye on the altitude because it"s very easy to Split-S straight into the ground. Yo-Yo Turn A Yo-Yo is used primarily by higher speed jets against slower opponents. The Harrier will have little chance to use it against the fast jets but you may see enemy MiGs trying it against you. In a Yo-Yo you climb and roll toward the enemy until he"s visible out of the top of your canopy, then pull over into a dive while he"s still turning. During the dive you roll the plane to help line up your shot (which is often taken while you are inverted). Basically, a Yo-Yo makes a very big turn in three dimensions. Often the best defence against a Yo-Yo is to reverse your turn and go into a Split-S. -VIFFing" (Vectoring in Forward Flight) The Harrier is unique in its ability to change the direction of its thrust to give it greater agility in air- to-air combat. Thrust vectoring (rotating the thrust nozzles) can be used to improve the aircraft"s instantaneous turn performance. Put simply, this means that by rotating the thrust nozzles during forward flight the direction of the aircraft"s motion can be changed quite radically, causing potential non-STOVL and missile adversaries to overshoot. Much of the development of the VIFFing tactic was carried out by the US Marine Corps. By pointing the exhaust nozzles downwards relative to the aircraft under slow-speed, low-G conditions, VIFFing can double the instantaneous turn performance. But at high speed and high-G its effects are minimal. However, since all the thrust is now directed downwards the aircraft will decelerate far more rapidly than a conventional fighter. VIFFing can also be used to effect a vertical reversal after a zoom climb: this is a shallow climb in which the pilot can trade altitude for airspeed or vice versa without causing a loss of motion energy. If the rear nozzles are rotated downwards when the aircraft is in a near-vertical slow speed zoom climb the effect is to make the aircraft pitch forward, pivoting about its centre of gravity (CofG) and quite literally swapping ends to point itself back down at its attacker. This can be a valuable manoeuvre if the Harrier is equipped with all-aspect air- to-air missiles like the Sidewinder. Enemy Surface-to-Air Missile Systems (SAMs) Medium/Long Range SAMs Medium and long-range SAMs are controlled by radar. All types use the same 3 step process to engage their target. Radar Search. Search radar periodically scans the sky (360¡) for aircraft. Radar Tracking When search radar finds something, it "hands off" the prospective target to a narrow-beam fire control radar, usually running on a different frequency. This finds and "locks-on" to your aircraft. When the fire control operators are sure their beam is tracking correctly they launch a missile. Radar Control After the missile is launched, the ground station continues tracking the plane so the missile"s course can be updated and corrected. There are three methods to control the missile"s course: Beam Rider- The SAM is guided along the radar beam toward you. Semi-Active SAMs- The missile has a radar receiver and computer in its nose. The tracking radar "paints" your aircraft with a radar signal and the missile nose receiver catches the reflections. The missile homes-in on these reflections until it hits the plane. Command Guidance SAMs- These missiles use semi-active guidance but, in addition, the firer has a command link to the missile to allow him to override the SAG. This means that if the missile loses guidance, or is otherwise confused, the ground controller can turn the missile around again. Evading Radar-Guided SAMs Running Away The basic method to evade radar-guided SAMs is to disappear from the radar. The further you are from enemy radar, the weaker the signal, so you may want to run away for a while until the signal is too weak to see you. Auto Defence Your ECM jammer is a good defence against beam riders. Chaff Each chaff cartridge (you have a maximum of 20 on board on each mission) sends out small tin-foil strips that reflect enemy radar. For a minimum of two seconds, the strips form a huge radar reflector, blinding the missile and acting like a smoke screen. To employ chaff you must wait until the radar-guided missile is a few seconds away, then fire a cartridge (Key C) and turn away. The temporarily blinded missile will fly straight into the chaff missing you. Beware when using chaff because it may not deceive a Doppler- guided missile such as the SA-10 and SA-12 (see later). Manoeuvring It"s important to manoeuvre out of the missile"s field of view because, after your defence measure expires, the missile will re-acquire you and continue on a collision course! Infra Red Homing SAMs Short ranged SAMs are usually IR homing that use a three- stage technique: Search The enemy detects your aircraft, from search radar, radio stations or by eyesight. Missile Lock-On A Missile is aimed at your aircraft. If you are close enough, the missile will see your heat signature and "lock-on". Missile Launch Once "locked-on", the missile is launched and guides itself toward you. Some SAMs are shoulder-launched; carried in trucks or jeeps by infantrymen and fired at point-blank range. If there are significant numbers of enemy forces you can expect these weapons. Evading SAMs Turning Away First generation IR missiles can be outmanoeuvred by turning tightly towards them. This turns your hot exhaust from the missile"s view. Second generation IR homers are more sensitive and recognize all surfaces heated by air friction, this means the front and top of a plane will appear "hot". Flares Flares are small, finely tuned heat decoys. A flare lures an IR missile toward it and away from you but only during the two to three seconds it takes to burn, After it has died, the missile will continue to seek, so the classic technique adopted by combat pilots is to wait until the missile is close then drop a flare and turn away. Outmanoeuvring a Missile SAMs can only find their targets within the acquisition arc of their seeker. The arc is 45¡ ahead of the missile. Move outside this arc, usually at 90¡ to its flight path, and you evade attack. You can also try turning inside a missile. Its turning arc is greater than yours causing it to zoom past you. Also, try turning toward a missile and increase turn tightness as it comes closer. The missile will not turn with you, but it will gradually fall behind and zoom past your tail. If a SAM approaches you from the front, make a quick 90¡ turn forcing the missile to face the side of your aircraft. Now, roll 180¡ and turn toward the missile ready for a turning match. Missiles with the Doppler-guidance systems are a special danger because they will not home-in on the chaff unless your course is perpendicular to the missile. If the missile chases you from the rear or straight ahead, chaff will have no effect. Three SAMs have Doppler guidance systems: SA-10, SA-12 and SA-N-6. The Harriers The GR Mk.7 An upgrade of the GR Mk.5 incorporating Forward Looking Infra Red (FLIR) equipment and cockpit modifications for Night Vision Goggle compatibility. The GR Mk.7 can fly and deliver ordnance accurately at night, in bad weather conditions and at low-level. Specification TYPE Single-seat STOVL (short take-off vertical landing) tactical ground-attack fighter POWERPLANT One Rolls-Royce Pegasus 11-21 (Mk 105) vectored thrust turbofan rated at 21,750lb static thrust (st) DIMENSIONS Wingspan: 30ft 4in (9.25m) Overall length: 46ft 4in (14.2m) Height: 11ft 8in (3.55m) Wing area (inc LERX): 239sq ft (22.2sq m) Wheeltrack: 17ft (5.18m) Wheelbase: 11ft 4in (3.45m) (nosewheel to mainwheels) WEIGHTS Empty weight: 14,300lb (6,485kg) Max conventional take-off (CTO) weight: 31,000lb (14,060kg) Max vertical take-off (VTO) weight: 18,950lb (8,595kg) Max fuel/weapon load (CTO): 17,000lb (7,710kg) Max fuel/weapon load (VTO): 6,750lb (3,062kg) Max vertical landing weight: 18,650lb (8,459kg) PERFORMANCE Max Mach no. at high level: Mach 0.91 Max speed at sea level: 662mph (1065kph/575kts) Combat radius (air-to-ground mission): 480nm (553 miles/889km) High-level intercept radius (3min combat reserves for VL): 627nm (722miles/1,162km) ARMAMENT Two 25mm ADEN cannon with 100 rpg; two AIM-9L Sidewinder AAMs; up to 9,200lb of external ordnance (see below) CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS Metallics: 70% Carbon fibre composite: 25% Acrylic: 1.75% Fibreglass: 0.25% Other: 3% The Pegasus Engine The 24,450lb st Rolls-Royce Pegasus Mk 105 remains the world"s only production vectored thrust turbofan and is unique to the Harrier, providing both lift and propulsive thrust for the RAF"s entire fleet of Harrier GR5 and GR7 aircraft. Known also to the USMC as the Pegasus 11-21E or the F402-RR406A, the engine represents a substantial improvement over the Mk 103 which powered the GR5/7"s predecessor the GR3. With particular regard to its reliability and maintenance: time between overhauls (TBO) is now 1,000 hours compared with a mere 30 hours in 1960 for the very first Pegasus Mk3. This is an important consideration if the aircraft is operating away from its home base in forward positions where engineering back-up may be limited. The Pegasus Mk 105 is also fitted with a Digital Engine Control System (DECS) which monitors the performance of the power plant at all times, automatically adjusting the thrust settings whilst taking into account the aircraft"s speed and altitude within the performance limitations imposed by engine rpm, jet pipe temperature and acceleration. The DECS takes much of the pressure off the pilot who previously had to monitor all these functions, fly and fight at the same time. A rapid thrust-dumping mode also prevents pilots from "bouncing" the aircraft on vertical landings - saving a loss of face in the crew room afterwards! Inside the Cockpit Representing a huge improvement over the GR3, the GR7 cockpit is roomy and less cluttered, with more attention paid to ergonomics by the manufacturers. The pilot"s Martin-Baker Type 12 ejection seat is fitted higher in the cockpit than in the older aircraft, giving him a higher eyeline and a greater field of vision through a new bulbous canopy. The Smiths Industries 425SUM1 head-up display (HUD) and its associated up-front control (UFC) push-buttons below, together with the TV-type multipurpose display (MPD) screen on the main instrument panel to the pilot"s left, offer him a number of display modes which include navigation, stores management, weapons delivery, engine/fuel data and radar warning. A GEC Avionics Digital Colour Map Unit (DCMU) viewed on a Smiths Industries MPD is on the main instrument panel to the pilot"s right, and receives computer data from the Litton AN/ASN-130 inertial navigation system (INS) (also fitted to the USMC AV-8B) situated beneath the pilot"s feet. The right-hand MPD also acts as a standby, or alternative, to the MPD fitted to the left- hand side of the main instrument panel. There are fewer dials in the new cockpit and are confined to conventional analogue flight instruments such as altimeter, airspeed indicator (ASI), angle-of- attack (AOA), compass with course/heading/distance etc, and clock. They are situated centrally immediately behind the HOTAS (hands-onthrottle-and-stick) type control grip. HOTAS allows the pilot to control virtually all the functions required in a combat situation without removing his hands from the stick such as weapons, manoeuvre flaps, ARBS and Sidewinder selection. The consoles on either side of the pilot contain (to the left) throttle and jet nozzle actuator lever; fuel, external lighting (navigation, landing, anticollision) and oxygen switches; the SAAHS (Stability Augmentation and Attitude Hold System) panel. To the right are the communications, cockpit environment and power supply switches. The SAAHS provides automatic stabilisation throughout the aircraft"s flight envelope and also acts as an autopilot during take-off, landing and transition, with automatic altitude, attitude and heading hold essential during the lowspeed manoeuvres crucial to the operation of STOVL aircraft. A Martin-Baker Type 12 ejection seat is fitted to the GR7. It is known as a -zero-zero" system which means that a pilot can -punch out" from an aircraft standing on the ground - zero speed and zero altitude. Life-support equipment carried in the GR7 cockpit includes full NBC warfare protection for the pilot and an on-board oxygen generation system with an oxygen/air mixture control. Avionics An ECM-resistant GEC Avionics AD3500 U/VHF transceiver is fitted to the GR7 for communications plus a Cossor IFF 4760 transponder. The Litton AN/ASN-130 INS and GEC Avionics DCMU act together as a terrain-reference navigation system. The transparent nose cone of the GR7 accommodates the Hughes ASB-19(V)-2 Angle Rate Bombing System (ARBS) which has two basic modes. As a laser spot tracker it enables the pilot to visually acquire his target while it is being illuminated by a ground-based laser source or a designator-equipped aircraft. This mode does not need to be used in daylight attacks when contrast lock (the target"s natural contrast characteristics) can be employed. In its TV mode, the ARBS projects target angle rate data (slant angle and range to the target) onto the HUD and the pilot follows the steering instructions to ensure an accurate weapons delivery in a single pass. Electronic Countermeasures The Tracor AN/ALE-40 chaff/flare dispensers located beneath the wings in the undercarriage outrigger fairings are activated by the Marconi "Zeus" ECM system from twin antennae beneath the nose housing forward hemisphere receivers. It is likely that a Philips chaff/flare dispenser mounted inside the Sidewinder pylon will eventually be fitted to augment the existing equipment. "Zeus" consists of an advanced radar-warning receiver (RWR) combined with an automatic Northrop jammer which is capable of responding, via its computer memory of up to 1,000 known emitters, to confuse any would-be attacker. It can also automatically trigger decoy chaff and flares to combat radar-guided and heat-seeking missiles respectively. In the extreme tail of the aircraft a small radome houses the Plessey Missile Approach Warning (MAW) system which can automatically activate appropriate countermeasures when it detects a hostile missile homing in. Beneath this radome in the ventral fin tail bumper is an ECM/Rear Warning Radar (RWR) and in each wing tip more "Zeus" ECM antennae, plus transmitter aerials for the jamming component. Night Operations Although the Harrier GR7 is by no means an all-weather day/night aircraft, the combination of a forward looking infra red (FLIR) system and a pair of night vision goggles (NVG) for the pilot allows the aircraft to fly closesupport missions at any time of the day or night, except in the very worst of weather conditions. FLIR is a form of thermal imaging equipment which detects temperature differences in and around the object under surveillance. Put simply, it is a heat-sensitive camera which sees shape in terms of heat rather than reflected light. The GEC FLIR equipment is mounted in a slim, raised fairing on top of the aircraft"s nose cone but its field of vision is fairly narrow, confined as it is to dead ahead, so the pilot must have a means to intensify his peripheral vision during night operations. This is achieved by the use of a pair of Ferranti NITE-OP (Night Imaging Through Electro Optics Package) night- vision goggles fitted to the pilot"s bone dome which are not unlike a pair of binoculars in appearance. They are basically a clever optical device which widens his field of vision in the dark by converting any incoming (optical) light into electrons which are then electronically enhanced and converted back to optical light (photons) as a brighter, clearer image in the eyepieces of the goggles. This enables him to view the air and ground ahead and to either side in sufficient detail so he can keep an eye open for "bogeys" and to navigate and locate his target. The GR7"s cockpit is night-gogglecompatible (NGC) which means that instrumentation and lighting have been modified to compensate for the effects of the pilot viewing instrumentation through his NVGs. Weapons and Stores There are nine stations on the GR7 for the attachment of weapons and stores: four below each wing and one centreline point beneath the fuselage, plus two underbelly cannon pods. The precise mix of fuel and weapons to be carried is dictated by the distance to the target, although the GR7 has about 14,500 lb of weight available for fuel and weapons of which some 9,200lb takes the form of external stores. The range of weapons available to the GR7 includes the AIM-9L all-aspect Sidewinder air-to-air missile for self defence. Dedicated pylons are located between the inner and intermediate stations beneath each wing, aligned with the outrigger undercarriage fairing for the carriage of two missiles. Up to six Sidewinders can be carried by RAF GR7s. A wide selection of stores is available to the GR7 including the Hunting BL755 582lb (264kg) cluster bomb for use against armoured vehicles; 540lb and 1,000lb (245 and 454kg) high explosive bombs (free-fall or with tailmounted retarding parachute); laser-guided 1,210lb (549kg) Pave Way bomb; Matra 155 rocket pods carrying 18 x 68mm SNEB rockets for antishipping attacks; and two 25mm ADEN cannon with a rate of fire of between 1,650 and 1,850 rpm. The inner and intermediate pylons are also plumbed for fuel and the fitting of drop tanks. Reaction Control System In normal flight, the Harrier is controlled by ailerons, rudder and an allmoving tailplane. The aileron and tailplane are power operated and are fed by two independent hydraulic systems. The rudder is pilot powered. However, in hover or minimal jet flight - which takes place below normal aerodynamic stalling speed- normal controls are not sufficient and have to be backed up by the Reaction Control System. The system controls the aircraft in roll, pitch and yaw and is linked to the Harrier"s rudder pedals and control column. This means that, even in hover, the pilot can fly the Harrier like any normal aircraft, giving him important continuity of control. RCS is based around the engine high-pressure compressor bleed-air fed to the shutter valves positioned at the extreme points of the aircraft. The valves are ordinary convergent nozzles with a varying exit area created by a swinging shutter. These shutters on the Reaction Control Valves are driven by the flying control system. Landing Performance The Harrier"s flap/aileron/nozzle high lift system allows slower approach speeds and more reserve power, leading to a greater thrust margin, less water consumption, reduced wear and tear on the engine and a shorter ground roll. Structure The Harrier is the first normal production combat aircraft to have been constructed out of a high percentage of composite materials. Composite material is used to make up the wings, forward fuselage, stabilator, ailerons, flaps, rudder and access doors creating a saving in weight of 480 pounds (217 kg). The Wing and LERX The Harrier wing is a supercritical airfoil which holds a large quantity of fuel. The wings have automatic- manoeuvring flaps, drooped ailerons in a high-lift configuration and leading edge root extension (LERX) for increased agility in flight. Developed by British Aerospace LERX are aerodynamic surfaces in front of the wing root which increase pitch rate and lift, leading to improved turn rate and handling at high angles of attack. LERX work by producing a vortex, an energetic tube of rotating air, along the top surface of the wing. As the incidence angle of the wing is increased (if the aircraft is flown in a tightening turn), the airflow over it becomes untidy and disturbed, starting at the tips and moving inward. Without LERX this untidy flow would extend across the whole wingspan, the wing would stall and the aircraft would fall out of the turn. The vortex from the LERX allows the airflow to remain stable, so a higher angle of incidence can be reached, and a tighter turn can be flown. Electrical Systems Power is produced by a single engine-driven generator. AC is converted to DC via two transformer rectifier units (TRU) with a battery unit which is used to start the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). GTS/APU A Gas Turbine Starter and Auxiliary Power Unit is located on top of the Pegasus and is used to start the engine and provide AC electric power at times when it is not running. It may also be used as a standby generator if the main generator fails. Fibre Optic Technology The Harrier is unique in its use of fibre optics (thin glass threads) to transmit light impulses instead of electrical impulses. These optics can transmit the information of a complete set of encyclopaedias in under 16 seconds. Systems The Harrier has an integrated, computer-controlled navigation and attack system. System components are interconnected by a MIL-STD-1553B dual- redundant multiplex digital databus providing a high integrity, high reliability data link. The central control of the mission computer gives information to the pilot via HUD, MFD and ODU (Options Display Unit). The mission computer also controls the moving map display (MMD) which is in itself controlled by an operational flight program. Backup systems are available, in event of failure, including sub-systems with secondary control panels for weapons and communications. Inertial Navigational System (INS) An automatic, self-contained dead-reckoning system. The mission computer uses information to calculate velocity, pitch, roll and true heading which it then passes to other systems. Current position is worked out on a continuous basis from inertial inputs and keeps to an accuracy of level of 1 Nautical Mile per hour. Position can be updated using either TACAN fixing, geographical point recognition, or through the Moving Map Display. The main unit of this system is the Ferranti F.E. 541 inertial platform used in conjunction with a HUD developed by Specto Avionics and the Smith"s Air Data Computer. Moving Map Display Known to the pilots as the "shufti scope", the MMD shows a map area in either track or north orientation. The INS can be aligned wherever the aircraft is "parked" by punching in latitude and longitude co-ordinates correct to two decimal points. To ensure 100% attack accuracy, three check points are fed in leading up to the target. When the Harrier reaches a particular check point, small errors in navigation are corrected. Stores Management System Controlled through the UFC, MPD and HOTAS controls, this system controls the delivery of air-to-ground weapons, Sidewinder missiles and the two Aden guns mounted in fuselage. Angle Rate Bombing Set (ARBS) Pinpoints targets with laser/TV contrast tracking which enables high accuracy first pass attacks. In effect, once the pilot has "locked-on" to a target using the passive non-radiating ARBS tracker, line-of-sight and angle rate information is input to the computer which takes care of steering commands on all head-up/head-down displays. The TV-contrast tracker provides a six times magnification of the target on the multi-function display (MFD) and is linked to the laser spot tracker and AIM-9 seeker head as extra target identification information. The pilot can release weapons manually with Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP) system or choose automatic ordnance release mode. In laserguided attacks the target is highlighted by a laser designator (airborne or ground based) and once the ARBS Laser Spot Tracker "locks" onto the target steering data is output by the computer. Laser designation can spot most targets by day or night. Survivability If battle damage is incurred the Harrier incorporates many features to help survivability including redundant fuel and hydraulic systems, a multi-spar composite wing and mechanical/fluid control systems which can operate without electric power. The risk of fire is reduced by the On-Board Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS) which makes the carriage of liquid or gaseous oxygen redundant. Fuel System Five fuselage and two integral wing tanks give a capacity for 7500 pounds of fuel. In addition, the Harrier can carry four external fuel tanks on underwing pylons increasing capacity to 15,520 pounds. The fuel system is organized in two separate sections: fuel is channelled to the centre tank and then to the engine-driven pump and the Digital Engine Control System (DECS). In event of the failure of one section, the other section will still feed the engine. Refuelling is carried out under high pressure through a single coupling on the left forward fuselage. In-flight refuelling is made possible by a retractable probe mounted on the left inlet. Pressurisation and Air Conditioning The engine HP compressor air provides two pressurisation/air conditioning systems incorporating cold air units. One system provides cockpit air and ventilates equipment in the nose. The second provides air to the rear equipment bay. Oxygen System The On-Board Oxygen Generating System (OBOGS) supplies the correct breathing mixture to the pilot when the engine is operating. The ejection seat also contains an emergency supply of breathing oxygen which can be worked automatically of manually. Anti-g System The air supply system also provides the pressure for the pilot"s anti-g suit, channelled with his oxygen (and a mic/tel connector) through a seat mounted Personal Equipment Connector (PEC). This means that the whole four-function unit can be connected and disconnected with one rapid action. Hydraulic System Two independent systems produce hydraulic power that can operate the flight controls in the event of system failure. Dual engine-driven pumps provide 3000 PSI pressure to feed the system. Escape System The Harrier has a fully automatic Martin-Baker type 12H Mk.1 rocket assisted ejection seat with the zero-zero specification. This allows escape at all altitudes and speeds in the aircraft flight envelope down to zero height/zero speed. The Martin-Baker has small sensors to measure altitude, airspeed and deceleration after ejection. A selector then gathers the data to adjust operation for low speed/low altitude, high speed/high altitude or any speed/high altitude ejection. Immediately prior to ejection, the canopy is broken by a tiny detonating cord system fired automatically by the movement of the ejection seat. The AV-8B The AV-8B's main task is to provide close air support for ground troops but has proved to be extremely useful in many other tactical roles. It is used by the United States Marine Corps who employ the aircraft"s STO/VL capabilities for high sortie rates and rapid response times. The AV-8B, also known as the Harrier II, was developed by McDonnell Douglas in collaboration with British Aerospace. AV-8B Harrier II Specification TYPE Single-seat STOVL tactical ground-attack fighter POWERPLANT One Rolls-Royce Pegasus F402-RR-408 (11-61) vectored thrust turbofan rated at 23,800lb st DIMENSIONS/WEIGHTS /PERFORMANCE As for the RAF"s Harrier GR7 Potential ARMAMENT 216lb (98kg) LAU-68, 577lb (262kg) LAU-10 and 542lb (246kg) LAU-61 rocket launchers; AGM-65 Maverick missiles; 490lb (222kg) Mk 20 bombs, 520lb (236kg) Mk 77 fire-bombs, 270lb (122kg) Mk 81 bombs, 530lb (240kg) Mk 82 bombs, 985lb (447kg) Mk 83 bombs; AIM-9L Sidewinder AAMs on underwing pylons; and a single GAU-12/A 25mm cannon beneath the fuselage. The Sea Harrier FRS1 Although this manual concentrates primarily on the RAF Harrier II GR7 and the US Marine Corps AV-8B, it is useful to take a quick look at its carrierbased maritime cousin the Sea Harrier FRS1 which fought with great distinction in the South Atlantic during the Falklands conflict of 1982. It is the only Harrier variant with a primary air-combat role. Formulated by a Naval Staff Requirement for a sea-going version of the land based GR3, the Sea Harrier was supposed to be a minimum-change version of the GR3, but it did introduce a number of design and avionics changes (noted below) when it entered service with the Royal Navy in 1979-80. The type has since been superseded by the much updated FRS2 version. Sea Harrier FRS1 Specification TYPE Ship borne single-seat VSTOL strike fighter POWERPLANT One Rolls-Royce Pegasus 104 vectored-thrust turbofan rated at 21,500lb st DIMENSIONS Overall length: 47ft 4in (14.5m) Wingspan: 25ft 3in (7.7m) Overall height: 12ft 2in (3.71m) Wing area: 201.1 sq ft (18.68sq m) WEIGHTS Empty weight: 14,052lb (6,374kg) Operational weight: 23,000lb (10,433kg) Max take-off weight: 26,200lb (11,884kg) Underwing load weight: 5,000lb (2,268kg) Fuel capacity: 5,010lb (2,273kg) PERFORMANCE Maximum speed: 642kts (736mph/1,189kmh) Cruising speed: 485kts (898kmh) Service ceiling: 50,000ft (15,240m) Radius of action: 250nm (463km) Maximum endurance: 7.3 hours with one in-flight refuel ARMAMENT 2 x 30mm ADEN cannon in under-fuselage gun pack; 2/4 AIM-9L Sidewinder AAMs; 5 x 1,000lb (454kg) iron bombs (free- fall or retarded); 5 x 600lb (272kg); 2 x BAe Sea Eagle anti-shipping missiles; 4 x Matra 115/116 68mm rocket pods; 5 APAM/Rockeye Mk 7 cluster bombs; 10 x Bofors Lepus flares Power plant The Pegasus Mk 104 fitted in the Sea Harrier is a navalized version of the Mk 103 that powered the RAF"s GR3, replacing aluminium with noncorrosive magnesium and other alloys to resist corrosion from the saline atmosphere of a carrier"s deck. Cockpit To provide under floor space for avionics equipment and a revised cockpit layout, the cockpit floor of the Sea Harrier was raised by 11 inches. Quite coincidentally, this raising of the floor provided the pilot, who sits on a Martin-Baker Type 10H zero-zero rocket-type ejection seat, with much improved all-round visibility from the bubble canopy. The cockpit interior was redesigned to accommodate the Ferranti Blue Fox multi- mode radar and other naval-oriented avionics. Blue Fox is an I-band pulse-modulated radar designed for air-to-air interception and air-to-surface search and strike. Fitted in the Sea Harrier"s nose behind a pointed radome, it was developed from the Seaspray search radar specifically for single-pilot aircraft and has all the necessary flight information (speed, altitude, heading etc) superimposed on the TV-type daylight viewing display of the radar. Blue Fox operates in four modes: search, attack, boresight and transponder. A Smiths Industries HUD driven by a 20,000-word digital computer generates display symbology and also acts as a flexible air-to-air and air-tosurface Weapons Aiming Computer (WAC). The basic layout for the flying controls and instrumentation in the Sea Harrier FRS1 is similar to the land-based Harrier GR3, but with no moving map and a small radar display added on the right-hand side of the main panel. Avionics The Sea Harrier"s electrical equipment differs from that of the land-based Harrier and its flying characteristics have been improved to complement its role as strike fighter. Increased roll reaction has been provided for dogfighting allowing a two-degree increase in nose-down pitch control. A Ferranti self-aligning Heading and Attitude Reference System (HARS) platform, cross-referenced to a Decca 72 Doppler radar, performs all of the navigation and endurance functions required. It provides far greater accuracy than a normal INS and can be aligned on a moving deck. A UHF homing and a GEC Avionics AD2770 TACAN plus an I-band transponder are also used for navigation. Radio communications are handled by a Plessey PTR377 U/VHF transceiver with a D403M transceiver for standby VHF. Electronic Countermeasures Marconi ARI 18223 radar warning receiver aerials are positioned on the fin leading edge and extreme tip of the tailcone to warn of illumination by hostile radar. A Tracor ALE-40 chaff/flare dispenser unit was fitted in the rear fuselage as an emergency update prior to embarking to the South Atlantic in 1982. Weapons and Stores The Sea Harrier FRS1"s armament in its primary air- combat role is the allaspect infra red homing AIM-9L Sidewinder missile. The lessons learned in the Falklands led to the fitting of twin-rail Sidewinder launchers beneath each wing. A selection of bombs, cannon, depth charges, rocket pods and nuclear depth bombs can also be carried, thus making the Sea Harrier an extremely versatile fleet fighter. To extend the aircraft"s combat or ferry range, a selection of drop (100 and 190 gallon) and ferry (300 gallon) tanks are available for carrying beneath the wings. Operating from Dispersed Sites The Conventional Airfield A modern military airfield cannot be hidden. A pair of runways measuring over 2000 metres in length, as well as hangars, taxi routes and hardstands, make it very visible and subsequently almost impossible to defend in modern war without a vast outlay in defensive equipment. Even then, missile attacks will be very difficult to neutralize and the best anti-aircraft defences will not prevent the runway from sustaining some kind of damage. If aircraft on the base do survive an attack they cannot be effective until the runway is repaired. It has been proved in the past that an entire air force can be made redundant if caught in this manner on the ground. The Concept of Dispersed Operation In a "hot" war, the continued existence of conventional aircraft and the airfields and runways from which they operate would be questionable. A well-placed bomb in the centre of a runway and on the Hardened Aircraft Shelters (HAS) could quite easily stop operations indefinitely for a squadron of multi-million pound high performance jet aircraft. The coming of the Harrier has revolutionized traditional military planning with its ability to operate away from home base out of rough forward airstrips, woodland clearings, motorways or carparks close to the battlefront. Basically, it can escape from the prying eyes of the enemy and from the inbuilt vulnerability of permanent airfields. The Site The Harrier can be dispersed across a wide range of terrain. All that is necessary are a few hundred feet of open ground. These in-the-field sites can be pre- stocked, or may merely act as launch platforms for Harriers originating from a main base ready-fuelled and armed. With Harriers, there is little need for ground support equipment. The Main Base Damage to the main base airfield of a Harrier squadron is not critical. A Harrier will still continue to operate from a seemingly shattered runway. It can easily perform short take-off in the space left between bomb craters. Detection by an Enemy The enemy will find it very difficult to detect a dispersed Harrier force and will have to carry out area reconnaissance; tying up a large number of aircraft. It"s obvious that a dispersed Harrier force has a good chance of remaining undetected. Dispersed sites have the added advantage of needing no ground-to-air defences. Operating in Undeveloped Zones The Harrier also has the advantage of operating in parts of the world where modern airfields are few and far between. Most undeveloped countries rely on light air transport and have a plethora of small dirt track airstrips that could not support modern jet fighters but are more than ideal for Harrier operations. The Harrier is unique in its ability to operate in such situations. System of Operation The difference between the Harrier and conventional military aircraft is clear cut. While a normal jet fighter will fly from a distant airfield, a long way from the combat zone giving it a slower speed of response, the Harrier flies short-duration missions, carrying moderate loads but with the possibility of rapid turnaround. The Harrier can arrive at the target a few minutes after take off, giving a tactical advantage to the ground troops. This can be compared to the hour or so needed for other aircraft to reach a combat zone. In that time a battle may have changed in complexion and even the weather may have changed. Conventional aircraft often operate a "cab-rank patrol" in anticipation of a call from ground troops with details of a specific target. But the Harrier can perform the same function by landing close to the battle area. The pilot can be briefed by radio and react to any target information received instantly. The aircraft can then be flown to a supported site for weapons replenishment before returning to its ground "cab-rank" position. In time of war, a typical RAF Harrier squadron"s three flights would disperse to their own flying sites "in the field" where the flight commander would become the site commander. The site would usually support up to seven Harrier aircraft. Sites can range from woodland or forest clearings to villages, wooded sections of motorways, farmyards and even supermarket car parks; once the glass fronts of the buildings have been bulldozed in to provide hides inside for the aircraft. In reality, aircraft hides in the field are invariably in wooded areas beneath overhanging trees. The site, disguised further by the use of camouflage netting, make it virtually invisible to ground or aerial reconnaissance. For rolling take-offs a site needs a 350 metre section of metalled strip such as a straight section of road or motorway. -Mexe" metal landing pads can also be laid surrounded by trees, with double marker boards at each corner for the pilots to line up on for a vertical landing. To support a flight of Harriers in the field requires fuel and weapons, demineralised water for the Harrier"s thrust augmentation system, communications equipment, pillow tanks and tents, plus several hundred personnel. Packs of spare parts for the aircraft, spare tyres and other consumables are also kept at the flying site where complete engine changes can also be carried out (although this is a major operation requiring the use of a hoist and removal of the Harrier"s wing). The three flying sites within one squadron are supported by the squadron"s central logistics park located nearby. This acts as a stockpile and distribution point for ammunition and fuel supplies. The Development of the Harrier Early Military V/STOL Aircraft The first country to experiment with the idea of vertical take-off (VTO) was Germany. Towards the end of World War II, the world"s first true VTO aircraft was developed to be purely defensive, this aircraft was the Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" (Viper). The Ba 349 was a single- seat rocket-powered interceptor, armed with 24 unguided rockets, and was capable of only one flight. After a vertical launch, the Natter would climb at 37,000ft per minute to an altitude of 20 to 25,000 ft and make its attack. When the engine had been shut down, the pilot would pull the control stick from its mounting, and the Natter would split into two pieces, one of which could be re-used. The pilot descended by parachute. The Natter never saw action, on its first manned flight a canopy malfunction caused it to crash, killing its pilot. The allied forces invaded Germany before any production Natters saw service, and a few years later surface-to-air missiles were performing the job which the Natter had been built for. Germany had other VTO designs on the drawing board, but all had one thing in common- they were rocket powered. The German designers knew that a piston engine cannot generate enough thrust to lift an aircraft vertically. Later, with the development of the jet engine came a new generation of vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft, which would eventually lead to the Harrier. The first of the jet-powered VTOL was American. In 1951, the US Navy asked both Lockheed and Convair to produce prototypes for a possible VTOL combat aircraft. The result was two of the strangest looking aircraft in the history of aviation, the Lockheed XFV-1 "Salmon" and the Convair XFY-1 "Pogo". These aircraft were powered by turboprop engines, which use jet engines linked to propellers to generate thrust, and were "tail sitters"; they had to take off and land pointing straight up. The concept was doomed from the start. To land the "Pogo", "Skeets" Coleman, the test pilot, had to back the aircraft down from about 1000ft, with a helicopter calling out the altitude as he descended. This took a considerable time, and the landing was dangerously inaccurate. To land such an aircraft on the deck of a ship would be very difficult, if not impossible. The XFV- 1 could not even manage to carry out one vertical take off, performing all test flights with a conventional undercarriage. The US Navy lost interest and cancelled the project in1956. The US Air Force learned from the mistakes of the US Navy, and worked with Ryan aircraft, to develop the X-13 Vertijet. This little aircraft was another tail sitter, but did not actually "sit" at all, but hung from a framework via a hook on its nose. It used a single Rolls-Royce Avon jet engine for power, and to control the Vertijet at low speed, air was bled from this engine to power little puffer jets at the wing tips. The puffer jets would roll the aircraft when there was not enough air passing over the ailerons to provide roll control. The Vertijet also had a simple thrust vectoring system (as in the modern day Harrier). The single exhaust nozzle could be moved around to help maintain stability in the hover. The Vertijet was the first jet aircraft to take off vertically, transition to normal flight, transition back to the hover then land vertically. It achieved this on 12th April 1957. Unfortunately, the aircraft was extremely difficult to control, especially during transition from normal flight to hover, or vice-versa, and was too small to be of any real military use. It was not long before the US Air Force followed the Navy and stop work on the X-13 project. The limitations of the "tail-sitters" (taking off facing up) were now apparent. These type of aircraft always needed to operate at weights below their engine thrust, because they had no other way of getting airborne and this meant that they could never match conventional aircraft in size and performance. In addition, they made flying a nightmare for any pilot, having to sit facing straight up, and especially when trying to land backwards. British Developments The British aircraft industry wanted to develop a supersonic VTOL jetliner, and Rolls-Royce started work on developing a rig for finding out how vertical flight could be achieved by a "flat riser": an aircraft which takes off in the conventional (horizontal) attitude. The result was the Rolls-Royce "Thrust Measuring Rig", known popularly as the "Flying Bedstead". The Bedstead was powered by two "Nene" jet engines, with nozzles both exhausting through the centre of gravity, so that the failure of one engine would not cause an instant crash. As a low-speed control system, it used puffer jets at the front, back, left and right of the aircraft to control pitch and roll, and the left and right nozzles could be tilted to control yaw. It first flew on the 9th July 1953. R.A Harvey, the test pilot, told the Press after the flight, -The Bedstead was remarkably steady in that it remained firmly horizontal except when the stick was moved. It was difficult to believe that this topheavy machine weighing over 3 tons, poised on the jet thrust, was being balanced by the four air nozzles." The Flat-Risers It was apparent to the aircraft industry that the "flat riser" concept was the most workable option and the race was on to find the aircraft which could put this concept into action. The next batch of VTOL prototypes used tilting engines, that is the whole engine tilts through 90 degrees, to achieve transition from vertical to forward flight. The first of these types was the turboprop powered Bell XV3, developed under a1951 joint US Army/Air Force contract. The XV-3 was a difficult machine to pilot, with no automatic stabilization system to help the pilot in the hover, and a downwards-firing ejector seat. It soon became clear that it was under powered and the project was cancelled. The concept was taken one step further with the Boeing-Vertol VZ-2. In this design, the whole wing rotated, along with the engines. In effect, this meant that the wing would act like a sail, and the aircraft was vulnerable to even the gentlest of breezes. The VZ-2 was another failure. The British Fairey Rotodyne first flew on 6th November 1957, and used a combination of a ramjet-driven rotor to achieve vertical flight, and two turboprops for forward flight. It was an interesting design, and provisional orders were placed by two airlines. However, it was noisy and lumbering to control and Fairey eventually stopped all work on the Rotodyne. The Jet-Engines It was apparent that, in order to achieve performance figures of comparable late 50s aircraft, VTOL research aircraft had to be powered by jet engines. Throughout this period researchers tried to find the best way to harness the power of a jet engine to achieve vertical flight. The Bell X-14, which first flew in 1957, was the first aircraft to use diverted thrust. The thrust from the two jet engines was diverted downwards by a deflector plate on the wing, giving the aircraft a VTOL capability. Puffer jets at the wing tips gave directional control. The X-14 was too small to be of practical use, but it proved the theories which would be used later on. The US Army/Ryan XV-5 Vertifan used the jet engine to drive three fans, mounted in each wing and the nose. The problem with this was that the weight of these fans, and the additional drag they created, made the aircraft difficult to control in forward flight. The aircraft was also very difficult to control in the hover, killing three test pilots before the project was cancelled. The 1962 Lockheed XV-4 Hummingbird used another system: ejecting engine air over the wing to produce lift. This could not successfully achieve VTOL and unfortunately also ended up killing its test pilot. Lift Engines The next development were the "lift engines": small jet engines pointing straight down, which are used only for vertical flight. The British Short SC.1 was a small delta- winged aircraft which used four lift engines and one conventional engine for forward flight. This first hovered in 1958, but suffered from the classic problem of aircraft using lift engines: the airflow into the engines had a tendency to suck the aircraft onto the ground. This same problem was also experienced by the French, with the Dassault Balzac in 1962. This aircraft had eight lifting engines, and was based on a Mirage III supersonic fighter airframe. The Balzac had another major problem: the speed at which the aircraft could transition from hover to forward flight was critical. In a test flight, the pilot attempted transition at the wrong speed and the drag of the lift engines became excessive. The aircraft see-sawed to earth like a leaf, exploded and killed the pilot. In West Germany, both Focke-Wulf and EWR built VTOL prototypes, the VFW-1262 and the VJ-101. Both aircraft used a combination of lift engines and thrust engines, but used them in different ways. The Focke-Wulf VFW-1262 used a vectored thrust engine (an engine with rotating thrust nozzles) to allow the same engine to be used for vertical or horizontal flight. This vectored thrust engine was not powerful enough to lift an aircraft by itself, so the VFW- 1262 also employed two lift engines to achieve vertical flight but, the VFW-1262 could not achieve true VTO, and it was also cancelled. The EWR VJ-101 was a very dramatic looking aircraft, using 6 Rolls-Royce RB.145 engines. Two were used as lift engines, and the other four were mounted as two pairs, in rotating pods at the wing tips. The EWR VJ-101 first flew in 1963, and had a supersonic performance. Several problems were encountered, however. The engines were so powerful that it wrecked anything which it landed on and melted its own tyres! In addition to this, an effect called "hot gas recirculation" meant that it could not achieve maximum performance from its engines. Hot gas recirculation is an important factor in VTOL. If the engine takes in exhaust gas, engine efficiency decreases, and as efficiency decreases, so does thrust. This problem is compounded by the particles of dirt and grit that the hot gas may contain, which can damage the engine. The Harrier overcame this problem by clever design of its intakes. The VJ- 101 project continued, but suffered a major setback when the first prototype crashed in September 1964. The second prototype flew in 1965 with afterburning engines, only to be cancelled a few months later. West Germany did develop one successful VTOL aircraft, the Dornier Do31 transport plane, designed to support the VJ-101 in the field. The Do31 was a ten-engined aircraft using two vectoring thrust Rolls-Royce Pegasus 5 (as used in the Harrier), and eight lift engines, arranged as two sets of four, in each wing tip. The prototype first flew, under Pegasus power only, on 10th February 1967, but the cancellation of the VJ-101 had left the Do31 without a military role, and it was deemed too expensive to develop the aircraft as a civilian transport. The Do31 was not officially cancelled, but the project was inadequately funded and allowed to die. By now, VTOL aircraft were generally seen as impractical, unreliable, difficult to fly and generally inferior to their fixed wing counterparts and, understandably, the more conventional air forces were not eager to exploit the tactical advantages of VTOL combat aircraft. However, in1960 an aircraft flew which would change history. The prototype was called the P.1127, and it would develop into what we know today as the Harrier. The P.1127 The Harrier story really begins in June 1957 at Hawker Aircraft, Kingston, England. It is here that Technical Head, Sydney Camm (designer of the WW2 Hurricane fighter) showed Chief Designer Ralph Hooper the technical specifications for a new engine: the Bristol BE53. The BE53 was a unique engine because it had a relatively conventional intake and combustion chamber, but with three rotateable exhaust nozzles; the front pair blowing cold fan air, and the rear one blowing hot combustion chamber gases. This process allowed the engine to lift an aircraft vertically and then by rotating the nozzles to face backwards, the engine could propel the aircraft forward. Ralph Hooper immediately started sketching his ideas for a vertical/short take-off and landing aircraft based around this engine, and the design was given the prototype designation P.1127. The first design was known as the P.1127 HSH (High Speed Helicopter!). The shape of the P.1127 changed radically over those first two months on the drawing board. The first sketches were of a three-seat light observation aircraft, soon to develop into a two-seat armed observation aircraft, and finally a single-seat light strike aircraft. By then, the BE53 had become a four- nozzle engine with the single rear (hot) nozzle split into two. It was clear at this early stage that some form of low speed control had to be devised, because the aircraft would be uncontrollable at speeds below stalling speed. Conventional aircraft controls work by deflecting a part of the trailing edge of the wing, tailplane or rudder and the airflow over this surface creates a force which makes the aircraft roll, pitch or yaw respectively. The P.1127 could not use this system at low speed because airflow over the control surfaces would not generate sufficient force to control the aircraft. The system which the P.1127 used, and the Harrier still uses today, is the reaction control system (RCS). This operates simply by blowing air out of the nose, tail and wing tips giving full control over roll, pitch and yaw, even at zero forward speed. Work stopped on the P.1127 at Hawker for the last two months of 1957 as the company fought to get its P.1129 supersonic strike aircraft approved by the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD). In the end, a competitors design, the BAC TSR.2, was chosen to fill this contract. Hawker were disappointed at losing this major contract, and returned to the P.1127 project. As fate would have it, the TSR.2 was cancelled in 1965, a blow from which the UK aerospace industry has never recovered. Had the P.1129 been chosen to fill this contract, the engineers at Hawker would have been tied up working on this, and the world may never have even seen the Harrier! When work on the P.1127 resumed in January 1958, the last details of the basic design, such as the unusual centre- line undercarriage configuration, had still to be worked out. The reason for this configuration is because the rearmost, hot engine exhaust nozzles would melt any tyres which were in their path, so the wheels have to be placed out of the path of any jet exhaust. This undercarriage layout had been used before, on heavy bombers such as the B-52. The result of using this undercarriage arrangement is that the nose wheel carries an unusually high load, meaning that the aircraft does not "rotate" on take-off, it just rises into the air. The fact that it does not rotate was countered by giving the aircraft a nose-high attitude when sitting on the ground. The wing was given a pronounced anhedral to minimise the length of the outrigger wheels at the wing tips and this also assisted stability in the hover. The RAF were consulted at this stage, to determine orders for production P.1127s if the aircraft flew successfully. The RAF stated that they were not interested in the P.1127 unless it was capable of supersonic performance, since they had a need for a supersonic interceptor, not a ground attack airplane. Stanley Hooper visited the United States in July 1959, and went to see the VTOL Bell X-14, at NASA Langley. It was here that John Slack, a director of the Langley facility, offered to build and test several models of the P.1127, using funding from the USAF. Stanley accepted gratefully, knowing that NASA had some of the finest wind tunnel facilities in the world. In the last months of1959, the first UK wind tunnel test results were compiled, from RAE Farnborough, and they proved to be extremely disappointing. The tests concluded that the P.1127 was highly unstable in pitch in the hover, making it uncontrollable, and deadly for any test pilot. This was due to the jet downwash blowing down on the tailplane, causing a severe nose-up pitch. Hawker were ready to end the project . They waited to see if the USA wind tunnel tests revealed the same problem. At NASA, Marion "Mac" McKinney dismissed the RAE tests, and in early 1960 proved them to be incorrect. The P.1127 was stable in the hover, and was almost stable in the transition from hover to forward flight. He declared that "transitions were immediately successful", but called for a more powerful elevator to overcome pitch instability problems during the transition. The UK MoD now took an interest in the project, and provided funding for four aircraft, covering the first 4 development P.1127s. The company finished construction of the first P.1127 (serial number XP831) in July 1960, and the aircraft was taken to Dunsfold airfield, the Hawker flight test site. In the meantime, at Bristol Aero Engines, the BE53 had been redesigned again, now generating 5125 kg of thrust, and given the name, "Pegasus", after the flying horse from Greek mythology. It was fitted to the Harrier in September 1960, and all was set for the first flight. In March 1960, A.W. "Bill" Bedford, chief test pilot for Hawker Aircraft, was assigned to fly the P.1127. He had already visited NASA to examine the American VTOL prototypes, and had already flown helicopters as preparation. Flying Prototypes On 21st October 1960, "Bill" Bedford became the first pilot to fly the P.1127. The aircraft was positioned over a grid to stop recirculation of exhaust gases, and was tethered by ropes to stop it from drifting around, or turning over. In the early tests, the aircraft weighed just 4,192 kg and was limited to three minutes fuel. The tethered tests continued until the 19th November 1960, when the aircraft flew properly for the first time. The aircraft continued its tests in the hover for some time, at various altitudes and weights, but did not use the wing as a source of lift until 13th March 1961, when the nozzles were pushed back and the P.1127 flew in the conventional mode. The second P.1127 (XP836), first flew on the 7th July 1961, using conventional take-off and landing (CTOL). The tests proceeded, and on 12th September XP831 made the historic transition from hover to conventional flight, and back to hover. It should be noted that, in the early tests, the pilots sat on old technology ejector seats, different to modern zero-altitude, zeroairspeed (zero-zero) seats. If the pilot wanted to get out of the aircraft, he had to be moving along at 90 kts minimum. This meant that the only way out of the aircraft in the hover was to climb out of the canopy. The short take-off tests performed in October 1961 showed that a short ground run would enable the P.1127 to get airborne with a greater load, due to the combination of jet lift and wing lift. Tests continued without incident, then on 14th December 1961, disaster struck! Bill was flying XP836 near Yeovilton, Somerset, performing high-speed tests, when the front, left nozzle detached from the aircraft. Bill immediately slowed down, lowered the gear, and attempted to land at the Fleet Air Arm base nearby. The aircraft became more and more uncontrollable as speed dropped off, and began a slow roll to the right, even though Bill had the stick full left. Bill ejected safely, with the aircraft at 30 degrees of roll, the aircraft plummeted into the ground, and was destroyed. The lesson learned from this crash was to manufacture the front nozzles in stainless steel, not the fibreglass, which the prototypes had been made from. The first development aircraft, XP972, flew on the 5th April 1962. This too was the subject of an engine failure but managed to, make a successful glide landing. In May 1962, the go-ahead was given for the "Kestrel" project; a large injection of funds to get an operational aircraft from the P.1127 design. The Kestrel When the Kestrel project began at Hawker, Bill was still flight testing the XP831, and made the first landing aboard an aircraft carrier, HMS Ark Royal, on 8th February 1963. By this time, three other development aircraft had been built, and fitted with the Pegasus 3, capable of generating 6122kg of thrust. The last development P.1127 (XP984) was soon retro- fitted with the Pegasus 5, rated at 7030kg. This aircraft became the prototype for the Kestrel. For the Kestrel, Hawker made several modifications to the basic P.1127. The tailplane was drooped, to cure the hovering stability problems and the RCS was upgraded for a better response. The aircraft was also given a pylon on each wing for the carriage of weapons, and a reconnaissance camera was fitted in the nose. The final Kestrel aircraft also had modified intakes, with blow-in auxiliary intake doors. The Kestrel operational evaluation was funded in 1964 by the UK, Germany and the USA and took the aircraft through a nine month evaluation to determine how best to use a V/STOL aircraft "in the field". The project was very successful, and only suffered one aircraft loss, when a US Army pilot attempted to take off with brakes applied, destroying XS696 on the first day of operations. The project determined that the best way to operate the Kestrel was in a short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) mode. The P.1127 (RAF) was given the go-ahead in 1965, but was subject to modifications: the inclusion of an auxiliary power unit (APU) to allow the aircraft to start its engines without ground support, the inclusion of an extra pylon on each wing, and two 30mm ADEN cannons under the fuselage. The airbrake was also rigged to deploy when the gear was lowered, to assist in stability. The Pegasus 6 rated at 8617kg was also fitted. The first P.1127 (RAF) flew on the 31st August 1966, and in early 1967, Hawker received an order for 90 P.1127 (RAF)s. These aircraft were given the in-service name "Harrier". The Harrier in Production The GR Mk.1 On the 1st April 1969, 233 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU) was formed at RAF Wittering. This unit carried out (and still carries out) transition of RAF pilots to the Harrier. The first aircraft which 233 OCU received were the operational version of the P.1127(RAF), the Harrier GR Mk.1. The designation "GR" indicates the role of the aircraft, Ground attack and Reconnaissance. The first operational unit, No.1 Squadron was soon formed, also at Wittering, and the RAF began operational sorties with the Harrier. The first two-seat Harrier flew on the 22nd April 1969. This was known as the Harrier T Mk.2 (T being the RAF designation for Trainer). This aircraft was fitted with a long tail "sting" full of ballast, which served as a counterbalance to the longer nose and extra ejector seat of the T.2. To stop the longer nose from making the aircraft unstable in yaw, a larger fin was also fitted. The instructor would sit in the rear seat and have an unusually good view over the head of the student pilot in the front. A re-engined version of the T.2, known as the T.4, came into service in 1975. In 1972, No.3 and No.4 Squadron became operational, at RAF Wildenrath, Germany. This gave the RAF a chance to operate the Harrier from pre- prepared "hides" in the German countryside. These types of base are known to the RAF as "forward operating locations" (FOLs). Working from a FOL, it was found to take 20 minutes to re-fuel and re-arm a Harrier between sorties, and a single Harrier was able to generate up to six sorties a day. It was also found that old FOLs could be re-activated in just three hours. In 1977, the Harriers of No.3 and 4 Squadron moved to a position even nearer East Germany, RAF Gutersloh, just 65 miles (about six minutes flying time) from the "Iron Curtain". The GR Mk.3 In 1975, the RAF introduced a new variant of the Harrier, the GR.3. This aircraft was based on the GR.1, but with several major differences. The main visible difference was the addition of a laser rangefinder and marked target seeker (LRMTS) in the nose. This allowed the GR.3 to measure the distance from a target to the aircraft via a laser beam which is being fired at the target by ground troops, or other aircraft. The Harrier can then bomb the target with extreme accuracy, at high speed. The other external difference was the fitting of a radar warning receiver (RWR) on the fin. This tells the pilot if he is being scanned by enemy radar. The GR.3 was also given a new engine, the Pegasus 11, rated at 9750 kg thrust. The existing GR.1s in service were soon re-fitted with GR.3 systems, making the GR.3 the only operational RAF variant of the Harrier until the GR.5 arrived on the scene. The FRS. 1 In August 1978, the Sea Harrier FRS.1 flew for the first time. The FRS stands for "Fighter, Reconnaissance and Strike" (S for "strike", as opposed to G for "ground attack", implies the use of nuclear weapons). This aircraft was based on the GR.1, but optimised for operation from aircraft carriers. The Sea Harrier entered service with the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA) in June 1979, and by April 1982 four FAA squadrons were flying the Sea Harrier. The Falklands war of 1982 proved the Harrier to be a success, a force of 28 Sea Harriers accounted for 20 confirmed and 3 probable Argentine aircraft kills for no loss in air-to-air combat. It should also be remembered that these aircraft spent a lot of their time flying in conditions which would have stopped conventional aircraft from operating. The GR Mk.5 After several years of debate and political wrangling on whether to design and build a new version of the Harrier in the UK, the decision was made to buy modified AV-8Bs (see The USMC Harrier below). These aircraft were built in 50/50 proportions by the US and UK, and came into service with 233 OCU in 1987 as the Harrier GR.5. In 1987, the night attack Harrier II flew for the first time. Equipped with a forward-looking infra-red (FLIR) sensor, a wide angle HUD to display the FLIR information, a digital moving map in the cockpit and new cockpit displays, the night attack Harrier II can strike a target at any time, in any weather. When flying at night, the pilot wears night vision goggles (NVGs) which display the night landscape by enhancing available light. The NVGs are set to cut off when the pilot looks straight ahead, through the HUD. The FLIR displays the night landscape in shades of green and is then used to attack the target. The GR Mk.7 In 1988, the RAF announced that it was buying the night attack Harrier, as the Harrier GR.7. This brought the total number of Harrier GR.5/7 in RAF service to 94. The GR.7 made its first flight on the 20th November 1989. In addition to the night attack modifications, the GR.7 also features two undernose antenna for the "Zeus" self defence system. The Night Attack Harrier II Today, as the night attack Harrier comes into service in the UK and USA, this little V/STOL aircraft will be one of the most capable attack planes in the world, able to operate from austere forward operating locations and attack with precision in any weather, day or night. The US Marine Corps Harriers The United States Marine Corps (USMC) first became interested in the Harrier in September 1968, when two USMC pilots were allowed to evaluate the Harrier at the Farnborough air show. Until the advent of the Harrier, the USMC had a problem with aircraft procurement, because all of its funding came from the US Navy. The Department of Defense insisted that the Marines buy Navy aircraft, to allow them to operate from aircraft carriers. The problem was that the USMC had a desperate need for a close air support (CAS) aircraft; to support its troops on the front line. Carrier-based aircraft spend too long getting to the front line, so an aircraft was needed that could operate from forward airstrips. The only USMC aircraft up to this job was the A-4 Skyhawk. Once the A-4 had disembarked from its carrier, however, it needed a 4000ft runway constructed out of aluminium planking to operate from. The Harrier appealed to the USMC because it can take- off, with a useful weapons load, from a runway of just 1000ft in length. So the USA bought a foreign aircraft to go into its front line forces, this was, and still is, virtually unheard of. The USMC was so desperate to get the aircraft into service that it was willing to give up 17 F-4J Phantom IIs in order to get 12 Harriers. The AV-8A The first USMC Harrier flew on the 20th November 1970, and was given the US service designation "AV-8A" (A stands for attack, V stands for vertical take-off, 8 stands for the eighth such aircraft to be built and A stands for the sub-type). The AV-8A was basically the RAF Harrier GR.1, but with some minor differences. Internal modifications consisted of the installation of American avionics, systems and ejector seat, and provision was made for the carriage of AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. The only major external difference between AV-8A and GR.1 was the large VHF "blade" antenna, mounted on the top of the fuselage. The USMC eventually took delivery of 102 single-seat AV-8A Harriers, and eight two-seat TAV-8A Harrier Trainers. The production run of 110 aircraft was not large enough to set up a production line in the US, so all of the first 110 AV-8s were built at Kingston and flown to America in transport aircraft. The Development of Harrier Combat Tactics The USMC soon recognised the potential for air-to-air combat that vectored thrust had to offer, and Lt. Col. "Harry" Blot performed some pioneering work on the technique of vectoring in forward flight (VIFF), known to Harrier pilots as "viffing". The first time Blot viffed was at 500 kts, in level flight. He had not tightened his shoulder straps because he did not anticipate any major effects and simply pulled the jet nozzles lever to the rear stop, and (as he describes it), -...the airplane started decelerating at an alarming rate, the magnitude of which I could not determine because my nose was pressed up against the gunsight. I was now straddling the stick, with my right hand extended backwards between my legs, trying to hold on for dear life." The USMC officially accepted viffing as an effective means to dislodge a hostile fighter from the tail of a Harrier. The manoeuvre is carried out as follows:- the nozzles are pulled forwards which results in a large deceleration; the attacker is forced to overshoot. The Harrier pilot then pushes the nozzles to face backwards, and instantly has 100% of his thrust pointing straight back, accompanied by a rapid acceleration. The Harrier pilot is then in a ideal position to bring his missiles or large- calibre guns to bear on the attacker. This manoeuvre has surprised many an F-15 pilot, in their attempts to down USMC Harriers in simulated air-to-air combat. The reason that viffing is so effective is because the engine does not have to lower its RPM over any part of the manoeuvre, whereas a conventional aircraft would have to throttle back to make an opponent overshoot. The effectiveness of viffing on turn radius is minimal, however, since it only adds around 0.5"g", this means that a Harrier cannot use viffing to out-turn a dedicated dogfighter like an F-16. The AV-8B Harrier II On 5th November 1981, a complete redesign of the Harrier, the AV-8B Harrier II, flew for the first time. Since the early 70s, McDonnell Douglas had been working on a redesigned Harrier, using new materials technology. The result of all this research was a new wing for the Harrier, made out of carbon-fibre composite. The new wing also featured enlarged flaps, an extra stores pylon (making a total of three per wing) and re-positioned outrigger wheels, to help when operating from narrow airstrips. The new wing was flown on an AV-8A in November 1978. The end result of all the modifications is an airplane which can take off 3039kg heavier than an AV- 8A, carry the weapon load further, and deliver it with twice as much accuracy. In simulated air-to-air combat with US fighter aircraft such as F-4 Phantoms, F-14 Tomcats and F-15 Eagles, the AV-8B has achieved an overall success rate of 2:1. The Squadrons On 15 April 1971 the first US Marine Corps Harrier squadron was established within Marine Air Group 32 (MAG-32) at Beaufort, South Carolina flying the AV-8A (the Harrier"s US designation). In 1992 there were eight USMC front-line and training squadrons operating the AV-8B and AV-8B Night Attack version of the Harrier II: VMA-513 -Flying Nightmares", VMA-542 -Flying Tigers", VMA-231 -Aces", VMAT-203 -Hawks", VMA-331 - Bumblebees", VMAT-223 -Tomcats", VMA- 311 -Bulldogs", VMA-214 -Black Sheep" and VMA-221 -Wake Island Avengers" . Trainee USMC AV-8B pilots receive 60 hours training with VMAT-203 over a period of 22 weeks for them to achieve a combat-capable rating before they are transferred to an operational squadron to work up to combat-ready status. USMC AV-8Bs differ from their RAF Harrier GR7 counterparts in a number of ways, the most obvious of which include the fitting of the more powerful Rolls- Royce Pegasus F402-RR-408 (11-61), a slightly different avionics and a range of weapons options that exceed those of the RAF"s GR7. USMC Harrier Operation From the outset, the USMC intended to operate the AV-8B from ships as well as from airfields and dispersed sites to support the Marines on the ground. However, as yet no US Navy ships have been permanently assigned to operate or transport USMC AV-8B squadrons. The USMC uses three different types of bases, the largest of which is either an aircraft carrier or an airfield with full facilities. Next is what is known as a -facility": an airstrip 600-800ft long and closer to the battlefront from where AV-8Bs can make short take-offs and landings. The facility has rudimentary provision for maintenance, basic navigational aids, fuel and ordnance. It is the equivalent to the RAF"s forward operating base which is known as a flying site. Closest to the battlefront is the forward site where the AV-8Bs operate off rough ground, a strip of road or a 72ft x 72ft aluminium metal pad. An AV-8B flies fully armed and fuelled from a facility to the forward site where it waits on the ground in a -cab- rank" arrangement until called in to attack by the forward air controller. This practice differs somewhat from the RAF"s method of operating Harriers in the field from dispersed flying sites, the equivalent to USMC -facilities". USMC AV-8Bs are generally expected to fly in close-support of a Marine amphibious landing, expanding a beach-head, whereas the RAF Harriers are tasked with supporting a defensive landbattle in an area where a rapid advance by enemy forces could overrun flying sites, hence their situation further from the battlefront than USMC forward sites. Combat Operations LEBANON VMA-231 -Aces" and its AV-8As were despatched aboard USS Tarawa in April 1983 for seven months off the coast of Lebanon to support the UN peace keeping force. OPERATION -DESERT STORM" With the mounting of Operation -Desert Storm" , AV- 8Bs of the US 1st Marine Expeditionary Force played their part in close air-support against Iraqi artillery and armour. The use of the Hughes AN/ASB-19 ARBS in the AV-8B"s nose tip enabled an accurate delivery of weapons, mainly in the form of Cluster Bomb Units (CBUs), in dive attacks. Napalm and fuel- air explosive were also dropped. Most sorties were flown at high level because of Iraqi heavy Anti- Aircraft Artillery (AAA) lower down and the lack of high altitude Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs). AV-8Bs developed a system of dropping chaff in the dive and flares on the recovery after the attack. VMA-311 -Bulldogs", VMA-331 -Bumblebees" and VMA-542 -Flying Tigers" operated their AV-8Bs from the metalled runways of Al-Jubayl Air Base in Saudi Arabia, despite their suitability for operations from forward strips close to the battlefront. USMC Rockwell OV-10A Bronco spotter aircraft kept the battlefield under constant observation, calling in air strikes by Marine AV-8Bs to destroy Iraqi artillery batteries along the Kuwaiti border and later to help halt the Iraqi push at Khafji in late January. Ten AV- 8Bs of VMA-223 -Tomcats" remained embarked aboard USS Saipan in case amphibious operations were launched against the Kuwaiti coast. The Falklands War On 19 March 1982 a small Argentinean force landed on the island of South Georgia, a British dependency in the south Atlantic, ostensibly to dismantle a derelict whaling station. On 2 April Argentinean military Task Groups landed on the long-disputed Falkland Islands, overpowered the small Royal Marine garrison after a short fight and declared the Falkland Islands to be a part of Argentina. The invasion had been anticipated for some time by British intelligence and on 31 March a decision had already been taken to assemble a task force capable of retaking the Falklands if necessary, and Operation - Corporate" was set in motion. A complex military Task Force involving thousands of troops, a fleet of ships drawn from the Royal Navy and the Merchant Marine supported by aircraft from all three services sailed on 5 April to a destination 8,000 miles across the world where, after a hard fight and the loss of irreplaceable men, valuable ships and aircraft, the Falkland Islands were finally retaken on 14 June and the Argentine commanders compelled to sign the surrender. The principal air components of the British Task Force were the Royal Navy aircraft carriers HMS Hermes , HMS Invincible and HMS Illustrious with Sea Harrier FRS1s of 800, 801 and 809 Naval Air Squadrons (NAS) embarked. RAF Harrier GR3s from No 1 Squadron, Wittering, were earmarked to join the Task Force in the South Atlantic to reinforce the RN"s Sea Harrier FRS1s in the air defence role. Fitted with long range ferry tanks and refuelling probes the RAF"s GR3s flew south on 4 May from St Mawgan to Ascension Island on a 4,600-mile 9.25 hour almost non-stop record-breaking flight, accompanied by Handley Page Victor tankers. Here they were flown aboard the container ship MVAtlantic Conveyor with Sea Harriers of 809 NAS and Boeing -Vertol Chinook helicopters for the final journey south. The FRS1s and GR3s were finally cross- decked to HMS Hermes on 18 May, their home for the duration of Operation -Corporate". With the cessation of hostilities No 1 Squadron"s GR3s were land-based at Port Stanley airport from 4 July until 10 November. Royal Navy Sea Harrier FRS1s During Operation -Corporate", the carrier-based Sea Harrier FRS1s had a four-fold role: mounting Combat Air Patrols (CAP) to defend the Task Force fleet; anti- shipping strikes; tactical reconnaissance; and a new role of ground-attack. As the only member of the Harrier family with a primary air-combat role, the FRS1 was fitted with single Sidewinder launch rails beneath each wing, although a twin-rail launcher was hastily developed during the conflict. FRS1s were armed with a combination of AIM-9L Sidewinder AAMs; twin 30mm ADEN cannon pods; Hunting BL755 CBUs; FAA 2in rocket pods (for possible anti-armour and shipping attacks); Pave Way laser guided bombs (LGBs); 1,000lb (454kg) iron bombs; Tracor ALE-40 chaff/flare dispensers mounted in the rear fuselage to improve self defence; two 190 gallon drop tanks were carried to extend combat range. Twenty-eight Sea Harriers were deployed to the Falklands and flew more than 1,100 CAPs and 90 offensive support operations for the loss of six aircraft, but none in combat. Royal Air Force Harrier GR3s Initially, tasked to fly in an air-defence role, the RAF"s Harrier GR3s were hastily converted to carry AIM-9G Sidewinders in support of the RN"s Sea Harrier FRS1s, but once the latter had firmly established air superiority over the Fuerza Aerea Argentina (Argentinean Air Force) the 10 GR3s of No 1 Squadron were free to operate exclusively in their normal ground-attack or low level reconnaissance role from HMS Hermes and, later in the conflict, from the Forward Operating Base at San Carlos. Weapon fits included Hunting BL755 CBUs to attack enemy fuel dumps, parked aircraft and vehicles; Pave Way laser-guided bombs launched against Argentinean artillery and command positions; 1,000 lb retard bombs for cratering grass airstrips and the concrete runway at Port Stanley; FAA 2in rocket pods. Tracor ALE-40 chaff/flare dispensers were hurriedly fitted to improve their self defence. Aircraft were also equipped with a pair of 100 gallon drop tanks to extend their combat range. The squadron lost four GR3s during the battle to regain the Falklands, but none in combat. Combat Tactics Both Navy and RAF pilots believe that their realistic training programmes in peacetime enabled them to gain, and then maintain, air superiority over the Falkland Islands in 1982, despite being heavily outnumbered. It also transpired afterwards that Argentinean pilots were reluctant to -mix it" in close combat with Harriers and Sea Harriers, at any altitude, because they knew that VIFFing could cause the enemy aircraft to behave in an unpredictable manner. Due to problems with the Sea Harrier"s INS, the FRS1s accompanied the RAF GR3 missions from Hermes until landfall was made to share the benefit of the latter"s accurate over-sea navigation equipment. Combat Air Patrols (CAP) CAPs were flown both by Sea Harrier FRS1s and Harrier GR3s from onboard the British carriers Hermes, Illustrious and Invincible. Armed with AIM-9G and L Sidewinder AAMs the CAPs were flown from low to medium level and at heights of up to about 38,000ft. However, the exact patrol heights were dependent upon the prevailing weather conditions, visibility, the need to conserve valuable fuel reserves, as well as the operating height of Argentinean aircraft. Ground-Attack Missions Because of the nature of warfare, it is only a fool who adheres rigidly to textbook mission profiles when circumstances are crying out for him to be innovative and modify his tactics to suit the changed situation. This was very much the case during the Falklands conflict since many of the textbook attack profiles had been written with north-west Europe in mind, where encounters with enemy fighters, high tension cables, expanses of woodland and built up areas would be far greater. The following is a typical ground-attack mission profile as flown by Sea Harrier aircraft during Operation - Corporate". It could also quite easily have been flown by a mixed Sea Harrier and Harrier force. Twelve Sea Harriers from Hermes were detailed to attack the airfields at Port Stanley and Goose Green. Sidewinder and cannon-armed Sea Harriers from Invincible were to provide top cover in case any Argentinean fighters tried to interfere. Armed with Hunting BL755 CBUs, 1,000 lb bombs fitted with instantaneous, delayed action and radar airburst fuses, the ground attack force took off from Hermes and ran in to the targets at 50ft. The aircraft pulled up to 150ft at a speed of between 500-600 kts to drop their bombs before easing back down to ground level on recovery, dumping chaff in a series of tight manoeuvres to brake the lock-on from radar-guided Fledermaus ground-to-air missiles. Once out of range of the defences, the force climbed to altitude to return to the ship where they made a vertical recovery. Early in the conflict, attempts to use the GR3"s LRMTS (Laser Ranging and Marked Target Seeking) equipment to designate for Sea Harriers using Pave Way LGBs was unsuccessful. Later attacks by GR3s with LGBs using groundbased laser designators gave better results. For attacks on Port Stanley"s runway, a mixed weapon load of CBUs, 1,000lb bombs and FAA 2in rocket pods were also used, but due to the very low release height the accuracy of the bombs was poor. Harrier Pilot Training Harrier flying is obviously very different from that of other more conventional aircraft and for this reason pilot training is markedly different and has to be more intensive. The RAF trains its Harrier pilots to fly at No 233 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU) at Wittering in the East Midlands where a mixture of Harrier GR3, GR5 and T4 aircraft are used in this task. Training is not cheap: it costs the RAF somewhere in the region of £2-3 million at 1992 prices to train a Harrier pilot, representing a huge investment in specialized aircrew. Initially, to acclimatise the pupil pilot to the peculiarities of VSTOL flying, a six hour course on the Aerospatiale Gazelle AH1 helicopter introduces him to hovering and transition to forward flight. Understandably, fixed-wing fliers can find it difficult to overcome their natural aversion to stopping an aircraft in mid-air and operating at heights between 50 to100 feet. A short course on the Harrier T4 two-seat trainer and then the single-seat GR3 gives an introduction to the VSTOL capabilities of the Harrier in 16 sorties totalling some seven to eight hours, before moving on to the GR5/7. Next, there follows a two- week ground school course using interactive computer-based systems with touch-screens to teach all of the Harrier"s systems and emergency procedures. The pupil then -flies" the GR5/7 flight simulator to put theory into practice. Here he learns more about the type"s general handling characteristics, instrument flying and emergency procedures. Conversion Training: Basic Squadron Eighteen sorties of conversion training are then flown to learn the specialized take-off and landing techniques peculiar to the Harrier: there are five different ways to take-off and another five different ways to land which need mastering, in addition to learning about the different surfaces a Harrier can operate from which include tarmac, grass strips and aluminium tracking. To appreciate just how difficult it is to master the Harrier"s take-off and landing characteristics, compare this element of training with the mere three to four sorties flown by pilots of conventional jet aircraft like the Tornado. The next step in the training process is in basic navigational techniques, close and tactical formation flying, and basic air-combat training (including VIFFing) on a one-versus-one basis. This includes tuition in the use of air-toair missiles and their handling characteristics. Once the basic conversion onto type training is complete, the pupil pilot fully-schooled in navigational techniques and combat training, transfers from the Basic or -A" Squadron to the Advanced or -B" Squadron of the OCU. Conversion Training: Advanced Squadron Training on the Advanced Squadron begins with two weeks ground school on the weapons system simulator, where the trainee can learn and practise the various weapons delivery profiles. There then follows live flying in a GR5/7 to put into practice all the various delivery profiles on ranges in the UK. Simulated attack profiles with no weapons onboard are also flown over selected targets around the UK. To see just how good the pupil pilot has become, an offensive "loose goose" aircraft is tagged onto his Harrier to simulate a "bandit". The pilot must do his utmost to lose him by manoeuvring the Harrier. Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) training is undertaken next at the Spadeadam range in Northumberland where trainees have the opportunity to use chaff and other features of the Harrier"s ECM system against "live" threats. Conversion Training: Operational Phase Several months hard work is then put to the test when all pupil pilots on the OCU are taken away from the familiar environment of their home base to operate from another airfield in the UK. Detailed sortie planning is the order of the day and flying exercises, in which the various ground and air threats which could be encountered in an operational scenario are simulated, help to make the training as realistic as possible for the pilots. "Pairs Leader" When course is complete a "Pairs Leader" (the lead pilot of a pair of Harriers) is the standard delivered from the OCU to an operational Harrier squadron. Night attack, low- level flying and air-to-air refuelling techniques are taught on the squadron along with close-air and multi-ship combat training. Additional Information Supplement Edited by Quentin Chaney. Copyright 1993 by MicroProse, Inc.